Theme & Introduction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Theme & Introduction - Essay Example The theme "How well do you know the people around you' will help to create a special context of communication because all communication is context bound. We can think of spatial, temporal, relational and sometimes organizational frameworks within which it is embedded. Employees will be divided into several families (mothers, fathers and children despite of their sex and age). The imagined place is a countryside; event - holidays, a picnic. 'Plunged' into this situation, the personal characteristics of the participants together with features of the shared situation act to shape the interaction that transpires and both may be influenced, to some extent, in consequence. Likewise, goals pursued are determined by personal and situational factors (Beebe, Masterson 2000). This theme was selected for training program because many employees lack knowledge and practice of interpersonal communication. The goals people pursue are not always conscious, and indeed one feature of skilled performance is that behavior is often executed automatically. Once responses are learned they tend to become hard-wired or habitual. When employees know how to interact, they no longer have to think about actions such as how to start a talk and how to behave. Skilled behaviors must be interrelated, in that they are synchronized in order to achieve a particular goal.

The effectiveness of Facebook advertising in Hong Kong Research Proposal - 1

The effectiveness of Facebook advertising in Hong Kong - Research Proposal Example This essay "The effectiveness of Facebook advertising in Hong Kong" outlines whether social media marketing is really effective and it provides the required ROI in Hong Kong and explores the true customer perception and customer behaviour about Facebook advertising. Many marketers forget the difference between social media marketing and traditional means of marketing leading to massive failure of their social media campaign (Tuten, 2008). Usage of proper interestitials, and superstitials is a must while advertising in social media. Determining whether a pop-up which comes in front of the reading page or a pop-under which can be viewed after closing the page is to be designed will also make a significant impact on the campaign. Most users tend to simply close the pop-ups without having the patience to read them. But, if they see an interesting page after they have closed the page they were working on, they are tempted to spend a few more minutes viewing it. A major advantage in using Social media sites for advertising is that consumer-generated contents can also influence the sale of a product substantially. As we could see most of the graphical images and witty comments passed on the Facebook regarding the merits and de-merits of the products are created by consumers themselves. Social media transforms consumers into free advertisers for products. Usually huge companies in developing countries like South Africa spend much on advertising while small companies usually rely on the very creative and cost effective advertising methods.

Single Parenthood The Effects On Childrens Academic Outcomes Education Essay

Single Parenthood The Effects On Childrens Academic Outcomes Education Essay Single parenthood is not a source of drawback but research on childrens academic outcomes has proved to be the other way round (Olson et al.,1993). In an Atlantic magazine article entitled Dan Quayle was right, Whitehead (1993, p.77) viewed the family breakdown connected with the rise in single parent households as a central cause of many of our most vexing social problems. Evidence from the study conducted by Dornsbusch et al. (1985) indicated that absences and behaviour problems in school are affected by the family structure. Family structure (number of parents and number of siblings) is also said to influence student academic achievement (Manning, 1998; Pong, 1997, 1998). Social psychologists like Sewell and Hauser (1980) believed that social processes in the home is concerned with the familys influence on the childs academic behaviours as parental expectations, parenting styles or parent-child communication. Adolescents who live in single parent households have lower grades than those living in intact families (Dornbusch et al., 1987). Kinard and Reinherz (1984) found that third grade children who live with disrupted families had more attentive problems at school as compared to those who live with never-disrupted families or families that were disrupted when the child was in preschool. The impact of divorce influences the childs ability to attend school-related tasks. Roberts (1987) claimed that the separation or divorce of their parents leads to a loss of self esteem and rejection by one parent. The school work and behaviour of the children are affected by these changes. The classroom and the teacher act as stabilizing agents in the childrens lives. Single parent families have become more and more common nowadays, thus, research revealed that children from this type of households will suffer academically as compared to those from two parent families. This difference pertains to several reasons and this study will provide more explanations and research on the detrimental impact that single parenthood has on childrens lives and the society in general. Allison and Furstenberg (1989), Blanchard and Biller (1971), Fowler and Richards (1978), Guidubaldi et al. (1983), Hess and Camara (1979), Santrock (1972), Sciara (1975), Shinn (1978), Sutton-Smith et al. (1968) found that there is a cognitive deficit in performance between children in divorced or fatherless families and those in intact families. Hetherington et al. (1985) stated that boys living with single parents are more likely to show angry aggressive behaviour at school and at home. Guttman et al. (1987) argued that children who have divorced parents have a bad academic perform ance as compared to those with two parent families. Ratings by parents and teachers that focused on the academic skills of reading, math, and spelling were lower for children from divorced families than those from intact families (Gelbrich Hare 1989; Guidubaldi 1989). Moreover, children from divorced homes were more likely than children from intact families to have repeated a grade, to have been referred to a school psychologist for services, and/or to receive special education services (Guidubaldi, Perry Nastasi 1986; Kinard Reinherz 1984). From a study conducted by Shreeve et al. (1986), it was found that the performance of children from divorced families were lower than children from intact families when class standings and grade point were compared. McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) and Wallerstein (1991) claimed that the lower test score performance, lower grade point averages and poorer attendance revealed their underachievement. When they were asked about their expectations relating to college, 32 percent of children living in divorced families had ambitions to attend college and 37 percent of children from intact families planned to attend college. As such there was a five percent difference between the two groups. Their lower academic achie vement and fewer years of education proved their vulnerability in terms of income and its effect on their lifestyle. From five longitudinal studies, McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) summarized that nearly 48 to 54 percent of children living in single parent families were enrolled in college and 15 to 20 percent graduate from college. On the other hand, 51 to 61 percent of children living in two parent families enroll in college and 21 to 37 % graduate from college. McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) claimed that divorce leads to the loss of social and economic resources owing to a loss in the household income, residential mobility and meeting with the non-custodial parent. Such drastic changes occurring in the life of a child produce social stress. The altered family structure has a negative influence on the parent-child relationships and interactions. This leads to behavioural changes in the child. The childs poor cognitive ability, low achievement at school and social-emotional aspects of his life were reflected in his adjustment to divorce. Also the childs level of maternal education is decreased. Divorce is one of the causes of single motherhood but the proportion of children with single mother as a result of out-of-wedlock pregnancy is multiplying. Today, one third of the births are from non married mothers. According to McLanahan et al. (2001), this type of family can have limited human capital and financial resources. A lack of economic resources available in single parent households who are poorer than two-parent families have a negative impact on childrens educational performance (McLanahan, 1958). McLanahan and Sandefur argued that the income of the single parent families and that of the intact families explains the differences in childrens test scores, grades, college enrollment and college graduation. McLanahan conducted studies on the impact that family structure has on high school completion and years of school completed by children by the age of 23. It was found that although the negative effect of living in single parent family was diminished by income for Whites, a small independent effect for both races still prevails. A similar explanation of the detrimental impact of single parenthood on the academic achievement of children demonstrates the lack of social capital in single-parent families. Coleman (1988) believed that the number of parents in a family indicates the social capital available. Also, he claimed that the amount of time single parents spend with their children promotes fewer interactions with their children than those in two-parent families and so their children are provided with less supportive learning environment, parental finances and education. Brooks-Gunn et al. (1999) discovered that there is a link between family income and childrens attainment. McLanahan (1985), Milne, Myers, Rosenthal, and Ginsburg (1986) stated that on average, single parent families tend to be low-income families. The importance of the family structure was found to be related to the child outcomes. The amount of money which the single parent invest in his or her childrens studies influence the latters academic achievement. Single motherhood diminishes the economic resources available to families (McLanahan and Sandefur, 1994; Page and Stevens, 2002) as non-custodial fathers provide less money in their childrens household. By reducing income and searching for a greater paid job, single mothers increase the time children must spend in household chores and working for pay, which in turn negatively affect their educational achievement and progress (Garfinkel and McLanahan, 1986). As such, family income was found to influence childrens educational aspirations, their status among peers, the extent to which their lives are stable and the insecurity within their family. As such, family income was found to influence childrens educational aspirations, their status among peers, the extent to which their lives are stable and the insecurity within their family. Beckers (1965,1981) theory of household production stipulated that the academic attainment of the children is an output of the parents income and time and is viewed as a commodity wished by the family. Time spent in the labour market provide income to buy goods and services and combine with non market hours in household production. The parents inability to combine these resources leads to under achievement of children. Increased achievement of the children is believed to be increase by additional inputs by the parents. Fleisher (1977) and Leibowitz (1974a,b) argued that educational achievement of children is correlated with parental time, especially of the mother and to inputs of income (Bowles,1972; kiker and Condon, 1981). Time and money act as constraints in all families but there is a limitation of these resources in single parent families. Espenshade (1979) believed that when a two parent family changes to a single parent one, income decreases. Hoffman (1977) claimed that separa ted or divorced mothers economic status declines but on the other hand the status of their male counterparts ameliorates. Educational attainment of the child is negatively influenced by the limited family income which decreases financial support for further education and enhancing early entry into the job market. Restriction of the time spent with the children comes from the absence of the father. Furstenberg et al. (1983) stipulated that are more likely not to contact their children than seeing them once in 12 months. Furthermore, the absence of the father promotes the reduction of time the mother is available to the child. Brandwein, Brown and Fox (1974) believed that children living in female headed families are more deprived of their parents because the mothers are forced to engage in time and energy consuming activities. Though the mother do not need to provide time for her husband, her home time inputs in childbearing is decreased because there is a need for her to accomplish the tasks done by the father in two parent families. Robinson (1980) discovered that less time is spent in child rearing practices by single mothers. Single mothers have to devote more time to their job and less to the upbringing of her children than married mothers (Duncan and Hoffman, 1985).  As such, the structural difference between having two parents and a single mother negatively affect parenting. Norton and Glick (1986) found that 60% of American children live in single parent families which lack most of the resources available in a two-parent family especially time and money. It is important to use the resources in the human capital such as the skill, knowledge and abilities of the children. Children living in single parent families suffer from the deprivation of these basic resources, psychological and socioeconomic consequences. The educational attainment is seen to be a long-term socioeconomic outcome. Bane and Ellwood (1983) believed that education either promotes welfare or leads to poverty. Unemployment is determinant of lack of education. Entwistle et al. (1995) provided other explanations which entails the meager material resources of single parents and the time pressures on them, owing to which they are unable to participate in their childrens schooling. Lower income families have fewer academic materials at home and hence, cannot improvise enrichment outside of school. The single parents involvement in the childs schooling is low, their supervision is lesser and their expectation of the child is lower. Low monetary and non monetary resources justify the lower academic achievement of single parent children compared to those with intact families. A study by Cooksey et al. (1997) revealed that when the statistics of the monetary and nonmonetary resources are controlled, the effect of single parenthood is decreased. The lower availability of energy and time enhances the single employed mothers to be less available to supervise their childrens activities and schoolworks which leads to the decrease of their academic achievement and hence they will be more negatively influenced by their peers. L.Hoffman (1986) believed that work takes time and energy away from the family. As cited in the Book of Inequality at the starting gate-Social differences in achievement as children begin school differences in achievement scores of children in literacy and mathematics were found on the basis of race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and social background. Differences in childrens test scores were found in terms of race and ethnicity as they begin kindergarten. The cognitive scores of children with the highest SES were 60% above those of the lowest SES even before entering kindergarten. Furthermore, the math achievement was 21 % higher for Whites than Black children and 19% lower for Hispanics. The family structure and the educational expectations are related to the SES and the childrens test scores. 15% of White children, 54% of black and 27% of Hispanic children live in single parent families. 48% of single parent households are found in the lowest SES quintile. Factors defining risk or educational disadvantage include race, ethnicity, poverty, single-parent family structure, poorly educated mothers, and limited English proficiency (Natriello et al. 1990). Natriello et al. (1990) stated that about 40% of school-age children were at risk. Brewster (1994) and Duncan (1994) conducted studies on neighbourhood effects and found that the family income, percentage of families in poverty and those headed by women contribute to achievement. OHare (1996) claimed that the poverty rate is five times greater than two-parent families with children and is 44% in female headed families with children. Family income influences childrens performance and academic measures. In the U.S., as in most industrialized societies, education is a key factor for predicting social mobility (Blau Duncan 1967; Erikson Goldthorpe 1992; Featherman Hauser 1978; Sewell Hauser 1975). From the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, Dunifon discovered that children who live with single mothers are exposed to significant declines in their academic achievement. Beller et al. (1992) found that single parent families negatively influence childrens attainment at school; enhance dropping out at school and lower chance of entering college. P.R. Amato and B. Keith (1991) conducted a Meta analysis on children living in divorced families. It was found that children living with a single parent have lower scores on measures of academic performance, conduct, psychological adjustment, self-concept, and social relations compared to those living with two parents. Haveman et al. (2001) claimed that American children with single parents are less likely to graduate from high school than those with two parent families. Lambert (1988) argued that it is appropriate to place children living in single parent families and those who experience family disruption in a special education class. On the other hand, Dunifon claimed that the test scores of children living with single mothers and a grandparent and those living with two parents do not differ. Research on the SES has revealed that schools with high SES achieve more than those with low SES. Gamoran (1992) and Willms (1992) believed that schools enrolling students from high SES family background provide more efficient learning and higher academic performance. Studies by Blau and Duncan (1967), Featherman and Hauser (1978) and Freeman (1974) revealed that males from single parent families have done fewer years of schooling than those living with two parents. Parental involvement acts as an intervening variable to the functioning of the family background which affects academic achievement of children. A range of forms of involvement is analysed as to how they described two measures of academic achievement such as the academic test scores and grades and how they are limited by resources like income, education and time. Involvement in three contexts was examined: the home, community and school. Many empirical studies have found a positive relationship between parental involvement and students academic achievement.(Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts and Fraleigh (1987)). Parental involvement and encouragement are important influences on academic success. Discussion and encouragement when children are younger also increase the likelihood of their ultimately graduating from high school (Howell and Frese, 1982). Consistency of parental encouragement through the high school years is positively related to attending college, but less predictive of attendance at a twoyear college than a four-year college (Conklin Dailey, 1981). High school dropouts report less parental monitoring of their activities and less discussion with parents (Ekstrom et al, 1986). Parents of dropouts may express their opposition to dropping out but not take any specific action to help their adolescent stay in school (Mahan Johnson, 1983). Parental interest may by shown by the presence of study aids such as encyclopedias and dictionaries in the home, also related to the likelihood of staying in school (Ekstrom et al, 1986). Evidence from Ho and Willmss (1996) study showed that the amount of parental participation in school positively influence the performance of eighth-grade students over the effect of individual parents participation. The negative influence of a single parent family on academic achievement is typical of parent-child relationships in such families. The parent-child relationship that leads to academic achievement reflects parental discipline, control, monitoring, concern, encouragement and consistency. Dornbusch et al. (1987) believed that permissive or strict parenting has a negative impact on childrens grades. Single mothers are more likely to score higher on permissive parenting than two parent families. Baydar and B.Gunn (1991), Bogenschneider and Steinberg (1994), Bronfenbrenner and Crouter (1982), Gold and Andres (1978), Hoffman (1979) and Milne et al. (1986) found that children-of all ages from preschool through high school, of full-time employed mothers do not perform well at school. Research conducted by McLanahan (1985) revealed that students are at risk due to the stress of family breakup. Less parental supervision and lower achievement have been linked to the absence of a father. As the father is not present, the mother has to undertake a job and is less likely to be available to supervise her childrens education. Students learn more and perform better at schools that have strong parental involvement (Goldring Shapira, 1996; Ho Willms, 1996), emphasize academic success (Lytton Pyryt, 1998; Zigarelli, 1996) and have a disciplinary climate conductive to teaching and learning (DeBaryshe, Patterson, Capaldi, 1993; Ma Willms, 1995). Empirical evidence shows that single parents spend less time in supervising and monitoring their childrens schooling. Single parents, are believed by researches, to have lower educational aspirations and expectations for their children. As Astone and McLanahan stipulated, these aspects lead to negative educational outcomes for tho se children. Furthermore, research by Drowney in 1994 have found that the parental involvement at school such as attendance at school functions and meetings, providing help in school chores and attending parent-teacher associations have cater for the low academic performance of children living in single mothers. Controlled SES in some studies (S. Lee, 1993) revealed that a lower verbal communication about school matters prevails between single parents and their children. Single mothers have to devote more time to their job and less to the upbringing of her children than married mothers (Duncan and Hoffman, 1985).  As such, the structural difference between having two parents and a single mother negatively affect parenting and thus, childrens schooling. Sigle-Rushton and McLanahan (2004) stated that decreased quantity of parental time with children results in poor socialization, less involvement, less supervision and monitoring and emotional support. Maccoby and Martin (1983) found that children from single mother families are disadvantaged when effective socialization is reinforced by a second person. However, S. Lee (1993) found a link between the low academic performance and behavioural problems of single-parented children to the low level of acquaintance with the parents of their peers. Growing up with a single mother results in an ineffective parenting which in turn hurts child outcomes (Astone and McLanahan, 1991; Thomson, McLanahan, and Curtin, 1992). The type of parenting a single mother provides to her children may be due to the disruption that non-marital pregnancy or divorce has on her. Her psychological misbalance may lead to withdrawal, worse parenting or both (Furstenberg and Cherlin, 1991).   The authoritative parenting style, characterized by warmth, interest and concern along with clear rules and limits, has a positive effect on grades; parenting that is permissive or authoritarian has a negative effect on grades (Dornbusch et al, 1987). Permissive parenting can be motivated by either a permissive, liberal orientation or one that is neglectful and disengaged. The neglectful style has the most negative effects on grades, attitudes towards school, and ability (Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, Dornbusch, 1991). Inconsistency in parenting style exerts the most detrimental effects on academic performance (Steinberg, Brown, Cazmarek, Cider, Lazarro, n.d.). Parents with more education are more likely to be authoritative and less likely to be permissive or authoritarian. Single mothers score higher on permissive parenting than those in two-parent families and stepparents are more likely to be permissive or authoritarian than parents in two-parent families (Dornbusch et al, 1987). Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, and Fraleigh ( 1987) found that parents with authoritative parenting styles have children who receive higher grades Moreover, studies demonstrated that the mothers speech is closely related to childrens vocabulary development. Some studies were based on observing children at home to enquire about family dynamics that are linked to their vocabulary development. Vocabulary development was found to be associated with later academic performance. One study, in which researchers observed mother-child interactions every month for the first two years of childrens lives, concluded that the elaboration of mothers language interactions with their young children was strongly differentiated by social class (Hart and Risley, 1995). As single parenting involves the mothers moving from richer to poorer communities after marital break ups, the family is disconnected with the community and its resources. Changing schools indicates school failure (Teachman, Paasch, and Carver, 1996). Cavanagh argued that small proportion of single-father families were found in the data collected in all countries. Children living in single-father families, display more behavioural and academic problems than those in either single-mother or step-families. Walker and Woods (1976) speculated that fathers in general do not much involved in childcare but they do help in other tasks, give emotional support and discipline and act as a role model for the children (Hetherington, 1981). A minority of children receive child support payments which is a small amount from their non-custodial fathers (Furstenberg and Cherlin, 1991).  Non-custodial fathers involve less time with their children as compared to married fathers. This include fathers of children born out of wedlock and divorced fathers whose involvement with their children decreases with time (Furstenberg and Cherlin, 1991; Edin and Kefalas, 2005). Fatherless households were assumed to be incomplete and the primary cause of delinque ncy, poor academic achievement, school drop-outs, and negative relationships with the parents, low self-esteem, sexual promiscuity and welfare dependence.

Breast Cancer Essay -- essays research papers

Breast Cancer: Risk Factors, Detection & Treatment   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Among all American women who die when they are between the ages of forty and forty-five, the cause of death most likely to be listed on their death certificates is BREAST CANCER. Breast tumors are responsible for the greatest number of deaths among women, and breast cancer alone is the cause of almost one fifth of all cancer related mortalities. It results in the death of thirty seven thousand American women every year. Currently, there is no concrete answer as to how breast cancer is caused nor is their a cure for the disease. â€Å"Research over the past fifty years has narrowed the causes down to certain risk factors that are common amongst breast cancer patients. The disease can be detected somewhat early if one attends examinations. As for treatment, several methods have come into use, neither of them one hundred percent effective.† (Seltzer, 23)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The risk factors for breast cancer have been evaluated solely by researching the medical histories of those with the disease.† (Seltzer, 27) They have been assigned a specific order which ranges from greatest risk to the least amount of risk. The risk factors are having a family history of the disease, never bearing children, having a child after the age of thirty, having had a late menopause, age, obesity, and being a Caucasian. These risk factors are not however, totally conclusive. My mother, also being a victim of breast cancer had none of the above listed risk factors, but still developed the sickness. â€Å"Even if none of the risk factors applies to you, you must still be wary and attend regular examinations, because every woman is at risk.† (Subak-Sharpe, 42)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Early detection of breast cancer is the key to surviving the illness. Once the tumor has grown too much, it is often too late. â€Å"Large tumors interact with lymph nodes which interconnect with the breast, facilitating the spreading of the disease, which in almost all cases, leads to certain death.† (Link, 144) There are essentially two methods of detection with breast cancer. They are self examinations as well as Mammography’s. Self examinations are essentially done by women on themselves, feeling the breast while searching for a lump or abnormalities. It is recommended by the American Cancer Association that a ... .... â€Å"Even though some patients illnesses prove resistant, the treatment is forty percent effective.†(Link, 110) Side effects with Radiation therapy are rare but include rib fracture, radiation induced Pneumonia, and Pericardial effusion(fluid around the heart). These side effects are due to the radiations proximity with the lungs, ribs and heart. The alternative to Radiation therapy is Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy involves using drugs in the fight against malignant, or deadly tumors. Pharmaceuticals such as Antimetabolites, Alkalating agents, and Antibiotics. These drugs are basically designed to flow through the body’s circulatory system, and then search for and destroy cancerous cells. Chemotherapy has about the same success rate as radiation therapy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, breast cancer is one of the most deadly cancers known to women around the world. Risk factors show who may be prone to developing the sickness, and as time goes by, more detection and treatment methods are developed. Hopefully one day, a cure can be found to eradicate this, and all cancers, but until that day, women will still have to deal with the detection, and treatment of breast cancer.

Malcolm a Homemade Education Essay

Down syndrome is the most common cause of mental retardationDown syndrome is the most common cause of mental retardation. It is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome. Chromosomes contain sequences of DNA called genes that represent the genetic information that exists within a cell. Twenty-three distinctive pairs of chromosomes which is 46 in total. They are located within the nucleus (a region of the cell that is bounded by a specialized membrane, and which houses the genetic material). When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell, the newly created zygote normally receives 23 chromosomes from each parent. The contribution of genetic information from each parent is what makes each baby a distinctive blend of both characteristics. In Down syndrome a mistake during division of the sperm or egg cell produces a cell with an extra chromosome 21. This event occurs during cell division and is referred to as nondisjunction, or the failure of all chromosomes to separately properly resulting in retention of one of the chromosomes in one of the two new daughter cells. This is also called trisomy 21 and is accounted for 95% of all Down syndrome patients. A rare number of Down syndrome cases the original egg and sperm cells begins with the correct number of chromosomes but shortly after fertilization during the phase where cells are dividing rapidly a single cell can divide abnormally creating a line of cells with an extra chromosome 21. It’s called a cell line mosaicism. The individual with this type of down syndrome has two types of cells: some 46 chromosomes which is the normal number and some with 47. Individuals who are mosaic for trisomy 21 typically have less sever sign and symptoms of the disorder. Another are location that can cause down syndrome is called a chromosome translocation. This is an even that unlike the numerical abnormally causing trisomy 21, there is a structural abnormality. Exchange of material from two different chromosomes during the production of sex cells can take place such that there is a whole chromosome 21 attached to another chromosome but the chromosome number is normal. [1]These types of translocation involving chromosome 21, occur in about 3-4% of cases of Down syndrome. Ancient cultures, such as those in Greece, Rome, and Egypt, put disabled infants to death. Compassion toward the disabled was awakened by the early Christian church, but its charitable influence waned during the middle ages. Down syndrome also affected this people due to no one really caring about what was going on with the ill children. Down syndrome has a lot of causes and this is normally what some parents want to know is why their child is born with this syndrome. Most times this is why they tell you while you are carrying your child you need to watch very closely and look for all signs of genetic disorders with pregnant. Down syndrome is a chromosomal disorder as I said before. A baby is usually identified at birth through observation of a set of common physical characteristics. Babies with Down syndrome tend to be overly quiet. When I say that I mean less responsive with weak floppy muscles. With that being said a number of physical signs might be present. This includes a flat bridge of the nose which is smaller than normal. It’s a low set nose. They will tend to have a small mouth with a protruding tongue, upward slanting eyes and also extra folds of skin located at the corner of each eye, near the nose. They will have small outwardly rotated ears and small hands as well. Usually they have an unusual deep crease across the center of the palm and a malformed fifth finger. They will have a wide space between the big and the second toes and unusual creases on the soles of the feet. They also experience shorter than normal height later on in their childhood. Before genetic testing became available, Down syndrome was diagnosed based on certain typical physical characteristics. Not all people with Down syndrome have all these characteristics though. This can vary from certain people and are caused by the extra chromosomes. Individuals with Down syndrome also have joints that are looser than normal. Their skulls are short and broad. Newborns usually have extra skin on the back of their neck, and as the child gets older the neck often appears short and wider than usual. [2]Facial shape is round in the newborn and also during infancy. When the child gets older their face shape becomes oval like. This is due to the underdevelopment they go through. Their cheeks are round and the teeth develop late and in an unusual order. Although Down syndrome is not curable and there will be no cure for it, parents, researchers, and also the Down syndrome individuals try to make the best out of life and try dealing with it. Advances in medical treatment over the past 40 to 50 years for conditions such as heart defects and respiratory disease have led to dramatic increases in the life expectancy of those with Down syndrome. [3] Half of the children born with Down syndrome during the late 1960s survived to age 5. Bronchopneumonia, a respiratory illness and heart defects were the most common causes of death. Now about 80% of those born with it survive to age 10, and about 50% of them survive to age 50 or beyond. The recent statistics from various study places show that the place of incidence of Down syndrome anywhere from 1 in 600 to 1 in 1,000 live births. An analysis published by various people. Bray and colleagues in 1998 of combined data from nine different studies found that the incidence varies from 1 in 1,445 live birth mothers at age 10 to 1 in 25 live births to mothers at age 45. Down syndrome really is a hard disorder to live with but at the same time it has its advantages. Down syndrome has no treatment options but they have a lot of programs to help cope with this syndrome. The development of a child is a joyous thing. It involves amazing ohhs and ahhhs that would shock you every day your child does something new. All kids from the time their able to sit up by them and walks are learning new things everyday. Even as adults we learn new things everyday but still with Down syndrome, everything that they accomplish is outstanding. All kids learn to develop their fine motor skills but there are different aspects when it comes to Down syndrome children. The development of motor skills is very hard. The first thing you have to do is have a laid out foundation of how you plan on teaching that child. This is very dependent on stability. [4]Stability is being able to push open a heavy door. It’s being able to put on your shoes without falling. It is carrying a tray full of drinks. Its really a list that goes on but with this syndrome most things aren’t accomplished because down syndrome babies lack stability. Most of the people diagnosed wit this syndrome also tends to walk a little strange. They walk from side to side and always have their head twisted. Now as kids get older and reach their age past ten, then your not exactly ok, but you can breathe a little. Most researchers are still concerned about the older ones but its really the babies that most are worried about. They tend to go through a lot as newborns and unto there early infants stages. [5] Babies with Down syndrome suffer a lot. They have a lot they feel and go through, but being an infant and not being able to talk doesn’t help at all. Being born with Down syndrome you experience how it is from that point on and for the rest of your life. Children with this syndrome almost always have some degree of intellectual disability. That is why they learn slower and have difficulty with complex reasoning and judgment. The degree of intellectual impairment various tremendously. These kids do learn and what they do learn they will not forget. Down syndrome can not be prevented but it is People with Down syndrome, whatever their age, are people first. They are people with abilities, strengths and weaknesses like everyone else. They may have additional needs but first they have the same needs as everyone else of their age group. The quality of health care, education and community support provided to children and adults with Down syndrome makes a real difference to their progress throughout life. This module provides an introduction to all the issues that need to be addressed to enable individuals with Down syndrome, and their families, to enjoy full and happy lives within their communities. It offers an overview of the development of individuals with Down syndrome from infancy to adult life. It also provides a summary of the causes of Down syndrome, the incidence and prevalence of the condition, life expectancy and associated education and health care needs. Children with down syndrome experience problems with their digestive tract at a rate that is much higher than that of other children. [6] some of these problems such as blockage of the digestice tract can be life threatening and can require emergency surgery. Blockage or atresia of the esophagus or the duodenum can cause starvation if not corrected. Atresia occurs when the anal opening does not develop. This condition prevents solid waste from being eliminated from the intestinal tract and must be corrected surgically. Anal stenosis will allow waste products to pass, but will cause constipation. Gastroesophageal feflux is also more common in individuals with down syndrome. During this stage food reenters the esophagus from the stomach. This can cause vomiting and irritation of the esophagus. You can also have vision problem s with down syndrome to. Theses problems are common with those suffering with down syndrome. Strabismus in which one or both euyes either truns in or out. Occurs in 43% of theses chuldren. It is caused by abnormal or incomplete development of the cneters in the brain that control the coordination of eye movements. This condition may require an eye patch, special glasses or even surgery. Vision therapy may also be benificial and should be considered before surgery. Hearing problems also come with syndrome. [7] anatomical differences that result from trisomy 21 contribute to the larger percentage of hearing difficulties founf in individuals with down syndrome. Appromately 53% in children with down syndrome have hearing problems. This makes it more difficult to examine the ars for wax buildup and infection. The middle ear is smaller than normal, as well. This contributes to the presence of chronic ear infections in 40% to 60% of children with downs syndrome. The shallow nasal bridge founfd in 61% of individuals with down syndrome also contributed. Collapse or blockage of the eustachian tube, which leads from the ear to the throat, causes fluid to build up in the middle ear and increases the risk of middle ear infection. [8]In children with down syndrome the eustachian tubes are often smaller tha normal and have lowered muscle tone. Problems with fluid build up in the middle ear occur in 60% of indiviuals with down syndrome this fluid buildup interferes with hearing and can cause permanent hearing loss if it remains for a long peopif of time. Estimates of hearing loss in people with down syndrome range from 60% to 80%. Hearing loss in children can contribute to language and speech difficulies as well as auditory attention. Monitoring for fluid buildup and infections of the middle ear should begin before the age of six months and should continue into adulthood. Hearin aids may be a choice as well. Another problem that occurs in down syndrome individuals is problems with thyroid gland. Weighing less than one ounce the thyroid is actually one of the largest endocrine glands. Thyroid hormones help regualte the synthesis of growth factore and many hormones. Thyroid hormones are crucial for proper brain development during pregnancy. They are also important in normal growth. Because they are composed of the amino acid tyrosine, to which iodine molecules have been atattched adequate iodine in the diet is esstenial for their production. Another hormone produced by the thyroid gland is calcitonin which regulates the levels and metabolism of calcium. The hormones tri-iodothyonine and tetraiodothyonine are produced by the thyroid gland in a ratio of 1;14. t4 is secreted by the thyroid gland in responses to TSH. The active form, T3 is formed in the kidney, liver, and pleen by removal of one iodine molecule from T4. individuals with down syndrome also are 10 to 30 times more likely to develop Leukemia. [9] This is a type of cancer caused by the production of abnormal qhite blood cells by the bone marrow. These abnormal cells eventually crowd out normal white and red blood cells. There are two main types of leukemia. Acute and chronic. Acute leuk emias develop slowly and the patienst condition worsens slowly. Chronic leukemia develops rapidly and the patients syptoms worsen quickly. About 10% of babies born with down syndrome develop a transient leukemia that usually goes away by 3 months of age. About 20% to 30% of those with this transient condtion go on to develop acute leukemia. Babies who do not have down syndrome rarely have the transient form of leukemia. This higher risk of leukemia is in contrast to the risk of other types of cancer in individuals with down syndrome. The incidence of most types of solid tumors is muh smaller than in the general population. Down syndromes rates has also increased. From 1979 to 2003, the prevalence (total number of cases of a disease in a population at a specific time) of Down syndrome (DS) at birth increased by 31 percent, from 9 to 12 per 10,000 live births in 10 US regions. Within the 10 regions, birth prevalence of DS ranged from a low of 9. 7 in Arkansas to a high of 13. 7 in Utah during 1997-2003. The number of infants born with DS was almost 5 times higher among births to older mothers (38. 6 per 10,000) than among births to younger mothers (7. 8 per 10,000). In 2002, DS was found to be present in about 1 of every 1,000 children and adolescents aged 0 to 19 living in 10 chosen regions of the United States, which means that approximately 83,000 children and adolescents with DS were living in the United States during that year. Prevalence of DS by age group was the highest in 0-3 year olds at 11. , declining to 10. 3 among 4-7 year olds, 9. 8 among 8-11 year olds, 8. 3 among 12-15 year olds, and 6. 0 among 16-19 year olds. A screening test will help identify the possibility of Down syndrome. Screening tests do not provide conclusive answers, but rather, they provide an indication of the likelihood of the baby having Down syndrome. An abnormal test res ult does not mean that your baby has Down syndrome. The goal with a screening test is to estimate the risk of t baby having Down syndrome. If the screening test is positive and a risk for Down syndrome exists, further testing may be recommended. Diagnostic tests can identify Down syndrome before the baby is born. January issue of Obstetrics & Gynecology, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists released guidelines recommending screening for Down syndrome to all pregnant women during their first trimester. Agnostic tests tend to be more expensive and have a degree of risk; screening tests are quick and easy to do. However, screening tests have a greater chance of being wrong; there are â€Å"false-positive† (test indicates the baby has the condition when the baby really does not) and â€Å"false-negatives† (baby has the condition but the test indicates they do not). As far as those individual kids with Down syndrome there is a lot that they can do, just as the regular ones. Kids with Down syndrome tend to have a sense of humor. Those with this disorder have slurred words and stutter but what you can understand they have pretty good conversation. Also in about 4 percent of all down syndrome cases the individual possesses not an entire third copy of chromosome 21 material, which has been incorporated via a translocation into a no homologous chromosome. In translocation pieces are swapped between two non-related chromosomes forming hybrid chromosomes. The most common translocation associated with Down syndrome is that between the long arm (down gene area) of chromosome 21 and an end of chromosome 14. [10] The individual in whom the translocation has occurred shows no evidence of the aberration since the normal complement of genetic material is still present only a different chromosomes location. The difficulty arises when this individual forms gametes. A mother who possesses the 21/14 translocation, for example has one normal 21 one normal 14 and the hybrid chromosomes. She is a genetic carrier for the disorder because she can pass it on to her offspring even though she is clinically normal. The mother can produce three types of viable gametes: one containing the normal 14 and 21. the presence of an extra copy of the long arm of chromosome 21 causes defects in many tissues and organs. One major effect of Down syndrome is mental retardation. The intelligence quotients of affected individuals are typically in the range of 40-50. The IQ varies with age but being higher in childhood than in adolescence or adult life. The disorder is often accompanied by physical traits. Trisomy 21 is one of the most common chromosomal aberrations occurring in about 0. 5 percent of all conceptions and in one out of every seven hundred to eight hundred live births. About 15 percent of the patients institutionalized for mental deficiency suffer from Down syndrome. Before the chromosomal basis for the disorder was determined the frequency of Down syndrome births was correlated with increased maternal age. For mothers at age twenty the incidence of down syndrome is about 0. 5 percent which increases to 0. 9 percent by the age thirty-five and 3 percent at age forty-five. Comparing the chromosomes of the affected offspring with those of both parents have shown that the nondisjunction event is maternal about 75 percent the time. The maternal age effect is thought to result from the different manner in which the male and female gametes are produced. Gamete production in the male event in females. Formation of the femaleâ €™s gametes begins early in embryonic life, somewhere but between the eight and twentieth weeks. During this time, cells in the developing ovary divide rapidly by mitosis forming cells called primary oocytes. These cells then begin meiosis by pairing up the homologues. The process is interrupted now and the cells are held in a state of suspended animation until needed in reproduction, when they are triggered to complete their division. Most individuals with Down syndrome have intellectual disability in the mild (IQ 50–70) to moderate (IQ 35–50) range, with individuals having Mosaic Down syndrome typically 10–30 points higher. Dr. Weihs notes the mental qualities of people with Down syndrome to be â€Å"unisexual,† â€Å"playful,† â€Å"affectionate,† â€Å"mischievous† and â€Å"imitative†. [21]Language skills show a difference between understanding speech and expressing speech, and commonly individuals with Down syndrome have a speech delay. Fine motor skills are delayed and often lag behind gross motor skills and can interfere with cognitive development. Effects of the condition on the development of gross motor skills are quite variable. Some children will begin walking at around 2 years of age, while others will not walk until age 4. Physical therapy, and/or participation in a program of adapted physical education (APE), may promote enhanced development of gross motor skills in Down syndrome children. A 2002 literature review of elective abortion rates found that 91–93% of pregnancies in the United Kingdom and Europe with a diagnosis of Down syndrome were terminated. [54] Data from the National Down Syndrome Cytogenetic Register in the United Kingdom indicates that from 1989 to 2006 the proportion of women choosing to terminate a pregnancy following prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome has remained constant at around 92%. In the United States a number of studies have examined the abortion rate of fetuses with Down syndrome. Three studies estimated the termination rates at 95%, 98%, and 87% respectively. Medical ethicist Ronald Green argues that parents have an obligation to avoid ‘genetic harm’ to their offspring, and Claire Rayner, then a patron of the Down’s Syndrome Association, defended testing and abortion saying â€Å"The hard facts are that it is costly in terms of human effort, compassion, energy, and finite resources such as money, to care for individuals with handicaps†¦ People who are not yet parents should ask themselves if they have the right to inflict such burdens on others, however willing they are themselves to take their share of the burden in the beginning some physicians and ethicists are concerned about the ethical ramifications of the high abortion rate for this condition. [59] Conservative commentator George Will called it â€Å"eugenics by abortion†. 60] British peer Lord Rix stated that â€Å"alas, the birth of a child with Down’s syndrome is still considered by many to be an utter tragedy† and that the â€Å"ghost of the biologist Sir Francis Galton, who founded the eugenics movement in 1885, still stalks the corridors of many a hospital†. Doctor David Mortimer has argued in Ethics & Medicine that â€Å"Down’s syndrome infants have long been disparaged by some doctors and government bean counters. Some members of the disability rights movement â€Å"believe that public support for prenatal diagnosi s and abortion based on disability contravenes the movement’s basic philosophy and goals. Peter Singer argued that â€Å"neither hemophilia nor Down’s syndrome is so crippling as to make life not worth living from the inner perspective of the person with the condition. To abort a fetus with one of these disabilities, intending to have another child who will not be disabled, is to treat fetuses as interchangeable or replaceable. If the mother has previously decided to have a certain number of children, say two, then what she is doing, in effect, is rejecting one potential child in favor of another. She could, in defence of her actions, say: the loss of life of the aborted fetus is outweighed by the gain of a better life for the normal child who will be conceived only if the disabled one dies. Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher risk for many conditions. The medical consequences of the extra genetic material in Down syndrome are highly variable and may affect the function of any organ system or bodily process. Some problems are present at birth, such as certain heart malformations. Others become apparent over time, such as pilepsy. Other things Down syndrome patients go through are very emotional. For people with Down syndrome it is very hard to cope with the everyday activities. It is also hard on the family, especially the parents. It can be very frustrating for the parents to cope with having a child with Down. People born with Down syndrome require so much more extra attention than that of a normal child. Suggestions from some psychologists are for the parents to go to some kind of group sessions to talk to other parents who have children with Down. Therefore, someone else can understand the frustrations that they go through in raising their child. People with Down syndrome have a lot of different emotions running through their mind and body. People with Down syndrome, whatever their age, are people first. They are people with abilities, strengths and weaknesses like everyone else. They may have additional needs but first they have the same needs as everyone else of their age group. The quality of health care, education and community support provided to children and adults with Down syndrome makes a real difference to their progress throughout life. This module provides an introduction to all the issues that need to be addressed to enable individuals with Down syndrome, and their families, to enjoy full and happy lives within their communities. It offers an overview of the development of individuals with Down syndrome from infancy to adult life. It also provides a summary of the causes of Down syndrome, the incidence and prevalence of the condition, life expectancy and associated education and health care needs. Further modules in this series address each of these issues in detail. Down syndrome patients also have another way to look at things. The most of the time feel different and out of place. Most would like to know who Down syndrome affects. For instance what race and what are the ratios of living past a teenager Children and adults with Down syndrome have a wide range of abilities. A person with Down syndrome may be very healthy or may have unusual and demanding medical and social problems at virtually every stage of life. It’s important to remember that every person with Down syndrome is a unique individual. Each child will develop at his or her own pace. It may take children with Down syndrome longer than other children to reach develop Down syndrome cannot be cured. However, early treatment can help many people with Down syndrome to live productive lives well into adulthood. Children with Down syndrome can often benefit from speech therapy, occupational therapy, and exercises to help improve their motor skills. They might also be helped by special education and attention at school. Some of the medical problems common in people with Down syndrome, like cataracts, hearing problems, thyroid problems, and seizure disorders, can be also treated or corrected. It has been suggested that children with Down syndrome might benefit from medical treatment that includes amino acid supplements and a drug known as Piracetam. Piracetam is a drug that some people believe may improve the ability of the brain to learn and understand. However, there have been no controlled clinical studies with Piracetam to date in the U. S. or elsewhere that show its safety and efficacy. The life expectancy for people with Down syndrome has increased substantially. In 1929, the average life span of a person with Down syndrome was nine years. Today, it is common for a person with Down syndrome to live to age 50 and beyond. In addition to living longer, people with Down syndrome are now living fuller, richer lives than ever before as family members and contributors to their community. Many people with Down syndrome form meaningful relationships and eventually marry. Now that people with Down syndrome are living longer, the needs of adults with Down syndrome are receiving greater attention. With assistance from family and caretakers, many adults with Down syndrome have developed the skills required to hold jobs and to live semi-independently mental milestones, but many of these milestones will eventually be met.

Management Study Guide

1. We have covered a lot of material over the past two months. The final examination will consist of 10 short answer questions and 2 case study questions. The 10 short answer questions are similar in structure to short answer questions provided in the quizzes. Ensure you thoroughly read the case study provided with your final before answering the two case study questions. The exam counts towards 30% of your final grade and one cannot pass the course without completing the proctored exam.The examination is a closed resource examination; consequently, no books or notes will be allowed. You will have two hours to complete the examination. The final examination is comprehensive. It includes material in Chapters 1 – 20. 2. By providing this review, I hope to channel your preparation and study for the final examination to key areas concerning principles of management, but remember you are responsible for all the information covered since the beginning of class.One should ensure a co mprehensive knowledge of the Core Learning Objectives, delineated in each Weeks Overview, Objectives and Weekly Activities, sub section â€Å"The Objectives† and denoted by a light blue box with a black key in it. Key areas include the following: Know and briefly describe the five basic management functions. Planning – deciding what objectives to pursue during a future period and what to do to achieve those objectives.Organizing – grouping activities, assigning activities, and providing the authority necessary to carry out the activities Staffing – determining human resource needs and recruiting, selecting, training, and developing human resources Leading – directing and channeling human behavior toward the accomplishment of objectives Controlling – measuring performance against objectives, determining causes of deviations, and taking corrective action where necessary Define â€Å"management† and explain the managerial significance of â€Å"effectiveness† and â€Å"efficiency†.Management is a form of work that involves coordinating an organization’s resources – land, labor, and capital – to accomplish organizational objectives. Also known as getting things done through people List five methods that can used to train or develop employees. OJT – a rainee is shown how to perform the job and allowed to do it under the trainer’s supervision Job Rotation – also called cross-training, employee learns several different jobs within a work unit or department and performs each job for a specific period Vestibule – procedures and equipment similar to those used in the actual job are set up in a special working area called a vestibule.Classroom – most familiar method of training, methods are lecture, discussion, audiovisual methods, experiential methods, and computer based training. Computer-assisted – allows the employee to absorb information from a preset computer program and advance their knowledge in a self-paced format Understand and briefly describe effective management communication skills. Managers must give direction to the people who work for them – employees often perform their jobs poorly b/c they do not understand what is expected of them.Managers must be able to motivate people – ability to communicate to get employees excited about their jobs Managers must be able to convince customers that they should do business with them Managers must be able to absorb the ideas of others – must be able to understand and accept other people’s viewpoints Managers must be able to persuade other people – Describe four social responsibilities.Philanthropy and volunteerism – efforts to improved human welfare, time and money to charitable, cultural, and civic organizations Environmental Awareness – limiting the damage their operations cause to the environment Sensitivity to Diversity – Maintain an ethnically diverse workforce Quality of Work Life – Adopting policies that contribute to the quality of life for their employees, such as flex hours, on-site daycares, etc Describe and recognize legal and ethical responsibilities.Legal responsibility – responsibility of a business to comply with federal and state regulations that affect business operations Ethical responsibility – responsibility of a business to comply with its own set code of ethics along with ethical business laws Recognize when TQM would benefit an organization. Total Quality Management – management philosophy that emphasizes ‘managing the entire organization so that it excels in all dimensions of products and services that are important to the customer’ List three methods for training and developing managers.What are organizing work and structure? Organizing work – process of division of labor accompanied by an appropriate delegation of author ity; benefits of organizing work – establishes lines of authority, improves efficiency and the quality of work through synergism, improves communication Organizing structure – is the framework that defines the boundaries of the formal organization and within which the organization operates; Strategy, size, environment, organization and technology are factors that affect the organizing structure Recognize when MBO would benefit an organization.Management by Objectives (MBO) – philosophy based on converting organizational objectives into personal objectives; MBO works best when the objectives of each organizational unit are derived from the objectives of the next higher unit in the organization; it assumes that establishing personal objectives elicits employee commitment, which leads to improved performance Articulate and explain change and culture. Change – bringing about something different than the previous way or situation.In organizations, usually refe rs to technological, environmental or internal changes Culture – set of important understandings (often unstated) that members of a community share; ‘the way we do things around here’ Distinguish between mechanistic and organic organizations. Mechanistic – organizational systems characterized by rigid delineation of functional duties, precise job descriptions, fixed authority and responsibility, and a well developed organizational hierarchy through which information filters up and instructions flow down Organic – organizational systems characterized by less formal job descriptions, greater emphasis on daptability, more participation, and less fixed authority Assess and describe the importance of staffing. Employees are the most valuable asset to an organization. The goal of staffing is to obtain the best available people for the organization and to develop the skills and abilities of those people. Recognize the Herzberg two factor theory to employee motivation Herzberg’s 2 factor theory, aka motivation-maintenance or motivation-hygiene, is based off the idea that hygiene or maintenance factors, such as supervision, money, status, do not produce motivation but can prevent motivation from occurring.However motivator factors, such as achievement, recognition, advancement, provides true motivation. Discuss the international business environment in terms of management awareness, global competition, and strategic planning International trade consists of the exchange of goods and services by different countries. Compare and contrast the following three; basic planning, operations management, and strategic management.Planning – process of deciding what objectives to pursue during a future time period and what to do to achieve those objectives Operations management – short range planning done primarily by middle to lower level managers, it concentrates on the formulation of the functional plans Strategic management – analogous to top-level, long range planning; covers a relatively long period; affects many parts of the organization Define conflict and stress. What are some ways it can it be reduced?Conflict – overt behavior that results when an person or group thinks a perceived need of the person or group has been blocked or is about to be blocked Stress – mental or physical condition that results from a perceived threat of danger (physical or emotional) and the pressure to remove it Ways to reduce conflict/stress: Communication, shortening hours of direct contact with customers, special leaves (sabbatical), on-site exercise facilities, clearly defining employee jobs, flextime or telecommuting, early retirement programs, introducing changes gradually Assess and describe work teams.Formal work team – established and formally recognized by management, established to carry out specific tasks Informal work team – established by personal contacts and interaction s among people and isn’t formally recognized by management Quality circle – composed of a group of employees, usually 5-15 people, who are members of a single work unit, section or department. The basic purpose of a quality circle is to discuss quality problems and generate ideas that might help improve quality.Self-Directed – members are empowered to control the work they do without a formal supervisor Virtual work team – teams that use mainly technology-supported communication, with team members working and living in different locations Recognize when TQM would benefit an organization. Total Quality Management – management philosophy that emphasizes ‘managing the entire organization so that it excels in all dimensions of products and services that are important to the customer’Recognize and understand the implications of job enrichment, enlargement and rotation. Job enrichment – upgrading of the job by adding motivator factors Job enlargement – giving an employee more of a similar type of operation to perform Job rotation – a trainee goes from 1 job to another within the organization, generally remaining at each job from 6 – 12 months Each of these processes are used in attempt to solve motivational problems with employees Describe quality circle and recognize when there implementation may help an organization.Quality circle – composed of a group of employees, usually 5-15 people, who are members of a single work unit, section or department. The basic purpose of a quality circle is to discuss quality problems and generate ideas that might help improve quality. Benefits include increasing employee participation, encourage communication and trust among members and managers, inexpensive way to provide training, and solves problems Define, explain, and provide an example of operations control. Operations management – is the management of the production function in any organ ization;Describe the difference between leadership and management. Effective leadership in organizations creates a vision of the future that considers the legitimate long-term interests of the parties involved in the organization, develops a strategy for moving toward that vision, enlists the support of employees to produce the movement, and motivates employees to implement the strategy. Management is a process of planning, organizing staffing, motivating and controlling through the use of formal authority.Leadership is the ability to influence people to willingly follow one’s guidance or adhere to one’s decisions Management is a form of work that involves coordinating an organization’s resources – land, labor, and capital – to accomplish organizational objectives. Define the concept of synergy and how it relates to management of organizations. Organization improves the efficiency and quality of work through synergism. For example, synergism result s when three people working together produce more than three people working separately.Synergism can result from division of labor or from increased coordination, both of which are products of good organization. Synergy – occurs when individuals or groups work together to produce a whole greater than the sum of the parts. Evaluate and describe four characteristics common to all organizations. Group of people, working together, in some concerted or coordinated effort to, obtain objectives Describe at least three approaches or theories to motivate employees.Scientific management approach – based on the assumption that money is the primary motivation of people; if the monetary award is great enough, employees will work harder and produce more Equity approach – is based on the idea that people wanted to be treated fairly in relationship to others Reinforcement approach – is based on the idea that behavior that appears to lead to a positive consequence tends t o be repeated, whereas behavior that appears to lead to a negative consequence tends not to be repeated Recognize when â€Å"flattening an organization† may be appropriate Flatter organizations have fewer levels and larger spans of management at each level. Sometimes when forced to downsize, flattening an organization is resulted.